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Teacher education

Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school and wider community.

Although ideally it should be conceived of, and organised as, a seamless continuum, teacher education is often divided into these stages:

initial teacher training / education (a pre-service course before entering the classroom as a fully responsible teacher);

induction (the process of providing training and support during the first few years of teaching or the first year in a particular school);

teacher development or continuing professional development (CPD) (an in-service process for practicing teachers).

There is a longstanding and ongoing debate about the most appropriate term to describe these activities. The term 'teacher training' (which may give the impression that the activity involves training staff to undertake relatively routine tasks) seems to be losing ground to 'teacher education' (with its connotation of preparing staff for a professional role as a reflective practitioner)[1].

Initial teacher education

Organization

Initial Teacher Education in many countries takes place largely or exclusively in institutions of Higher Education. It may be organized according to two basic models.

In the 'consecutive' model, a teacher first obtains a qualification in one or more subjects (often a first university degree), and then studies for a further period to gain an additional qualification in teaching; (in some systems this takes the form of a post-graduate degree, increasingly, this is a Masters).

In the alternative 'concurrent' model, a student simultaneously studies both one or more academic subjects, and the ways of teaching that subject, leading to a qualification as a teacher of that subject.

Other pathways are also available. In some countries, it is possible for a person to receive training as a teacher by working in a school under the responsibility of an accredited experienced practitioner.

In the United States, approximately one-third of new teachers come through alternative routes to teacher certification, according to testimony given by Emily Feistritzer, the President of National Center for Alternative Certification and the National Center for Education Information, to a congressional subcommittee on May 17, 2007. However, many alternative pathways are affiliated with schools of education, where candidates still enroll in university-based coursework. A supplemental component of university-based coursework is community-based teacher education, where teacher candidates immerse themselves in communities that will allow them to apply teaching theory to practice. Community-based teacher education also challenges teacher candidates' assumptions about the issues of gender, race, and multicultural diversity. [2]

Curriculum

The question of what knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills teachers should possess is the subject of much debate in many cultures. This is understandable, as teachers are entrusted with the transmission to learners of society's beliefs, attitudes and deontology, as well as of information, advice and wisdom, and with facilitating learners' acquisition of the key knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that they will need to be active in society and the economy.

Generally, Teacher Education curricula can be broken down into these blocks:

foundational knowledge and skills--usually this area is about education-related aspects of philosophy of education, history of education, educational psychology, and sociology of education

content-area and methods knowledge--often also including ways of teaching and assessing a specific subject, in which case this area may overlap with the first ("foundational") area. There is increasing debate about this aspect; because it is no longer possible to know in advance what kinds of knowledge and skill pupils will need when they enter adult life, it becomes harder to know what kinds of knowledge and skill teachers should have. Increasingly, emphasis is placed upon 'transversal' or 'horizontal' skills (such as 'learning to learn' or 'social competences', which cut across traditional subject boundaries, and therefore call into question traditional ways of designing the Teacher Education curriculum (and traditional school curricula and ways of working in the classroom).

practice at classroom teaching or at some other form of educational practice--usually supervised and supported in some way, though not always. Practice can take the form of field observations, student teaching, or (US) internship (See Supervised Field Experiences below.)

Supervised field experiences

field observations--include observation and limited participation within a classroom under the supervision of the classroom teacher

student teaching--includes a number of weeks teaching in an assigned classroom under the supervision of the classroom teacher and a supervisor (e.g. from the university)

internship--teaching candidate is supervised within his or her own classroom

These three areas reflect the organization of most teacher education programs in North America (though not necessarily elsewhere in the world)--courses, modules, and other activities are often organized to belong to one of the three major areas of teacher education. The organization makes the programs more rational or logical in structure. The conventional organization has sometimes also been criticized, however, as artificial and unrepresentative of how teachers actually experience their work. Problems of practice frequently (perhaps usually) concern foundational issues, curriculum, and practical knowledge simultaneously, and separating them during teacher education may therefore not be helpful.

Induction of beginning teachers

Teaching involves a the use of a wide body of knowledge about the subject being taught, and another set of knowledge about the most effective ways to teach that subject to different kinds of learner; it therefore requires teachers to undertake a complex set of tasks every minute. Many teachers experience their first years in the profession as stressful. The proportion of teachers who either do not enter the profession after completing initial training, or who leave the profession after their first teaching post, is high[3].

A distinction is sometimes made between inducting a teacher into a new school (explaining the school's vision, procedures etc), and inducting a new teacher into the teaching profession (providing the support necessary to help the beginning teacher develop a professional identity, and to further develop the basic competences that were acquired in college.)

A number of countries and states have put in place comprehensive systems of support to help beginning teachers during their first years in the profession. Elements of such a programme can include:

mentoring: the allocation to each beginning teacher of an experienced teacher, specifically trained as a mentor; the mentor may provide emotional and professional support and guidance; in many US states, induction is limited to the provision of a mentor, but research suggests that, in itself, it is not enough. [4].

a peer network: for mutual support but also for peer learning.

input from educational experts (e.g. to help the beginning teacher relate what she learned in college with classroom reality)

support for the process of self-reflection that all techers engage in (e.g. through the keeping of a journal).

Some research[5] suggests that such programmes can: increase the retention of beginning teachers in the profession; improve teaching performance; promote the teachers' personal and professional well-being[6].

Notable US speakers on teacher induction include Todd Whitaker, Robert Marzano, and Annette Breaux.

Continuous professional development

Because the world that teachers are preparing young people to enter is changing so rapidly, and because the teaching skills required are evolving likewise, no initial course of teacher education can be sufficient to prepare a teacher for a career of 30 or 40 years. Continuous Professional Development (CPD) is the process by which teachers (like other professionals) reflect upon their competences, maintain them up to date, and develop them further.

The extent to which education authorities support this process varies, as does the effectiveness of the different approaches. A growing research base suggests that to be most effective, CPD activities should:

be spread over time

be collaborative

use active learning

be delivered to groups of teachers

include periods of practice, coaching, and follow-up

promote reflective practice

encourage experimentation, and

respond to teachers’ needs.[7] [8] [9]

Quality assurance

The quality of the work undertaken by a teacher has significant effects upon his or her pupils or students. Further, those who pay teachers' salaries, whether through taxes or through school fees, wish to be assured that they are receiving value for money. Ways to measure the quality of work of individual teachers, of schools, or of education systems as a whole, are therefore often sought.

In most countries, teacher salary is not related to the perceived quality of his or her work. Some, however, have systems to identify the 'best-performing' teachers, and increase their remuneration accordingly. Elsewhere, assessments of teacher performance may be undertaken with a view to identifying teachers' needs for additional training or development, or, in extreme cases, to identify those teachers that should be required to leave the profession. In some countries, teachers are required to re-apply periodically for their license to teach, and in so doing, to prove that they still have the requisite skills.

Feedback on the performance of teachers is integral to many state and private education procedures, but takes many different forms. The 'no fault' approach is believed by some to be satisfactory, as weaknesses are carefully identified, assessed and then addressed through the provision of in

Teacher education policy

The process by which teachers are educated is the subject of political discussion in many countries, reflecting both the value attached by societies and cultures to the preparation of young people for life, and the fact that education systems consume significant financial resources (of which teacher salaries is often the largest single element).

However, the degree of political control over Teacher Education varies. Where TE is entirely in the hands of universities, the state may have no direct control whatever over what or how new teachers are taught; this can lead to anomalies, such as teachers being taught using teaching methods that would be deemed inappropriate if they used the same methods in schools, or teachers being taught by persons with little or no hands-on experience of teaching in real classrooms.

In other systems, TE may be the subject of detailed prescription (e.g. the state may specify the skills that all teachers must possess, or it may specify the content of TE courses).

In many states, the process of acquiring the relevant knowledge and skills to be a teacher (qualification) is separate from the process of acquiring the official permission to teach in public schools (registration or licensing).

Policy cooperation in the European Union has led to a broad description of the kinds of attributes that teachers in EU Member States should possess: the [Common European Principle for Teacher Competences and Qualifications][1].

Education and Training [X] » Education and Training

Definition

Training is usually considered as a contrastive concept to education, if not as its polar extreme. A classical although not consensual definition of education is adopted by Unesco: "the organized and sustained instruction designed to communicate a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding valuable for all activities of life". Training, on the other hand, is most usually associated with the world of work (Ollagnier, 2005). Training can be defined as "the procedure whereby knowledge is transmitted with an instrumental and operational vision of the learning process and of its expected results" or as "a planned and systematic sequence of instruction under supervision, designed to impart skills, knowledge, information and attitudes" (Jarvis, 1999). However, training has itself a vast array of meanings. Traditionally it has been associated with apprenticeship (Winch and Clarke, 2008). Nowadays its meanings stand from teaching someone how to perform relatively simple tasks to preparing someone for new job challenges, but some commentators consider that "the differences between education and training have always been exaggerated and the most reputable training programs are education as much as training" (Moura Castro and Oliveira, 1994).

In impact assessment (IA) a common meaning of training is the transmittal of information, knowledge, and sometimes skills on the purpose, legal requirements, procedures, approaches and tools relative to the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. Training activities are normally aimed at professionals or practitioners. Education, by contrast, aims at instructing graduate or postgraduate students, usually in fields such as environmental science or engineering, environmental or regional planning, geography, social and biological sciences, among others, on the same evaluative process.

As impact assessment involves the use of independent and informed judgement, both education and training are necessary to develop the necessary formal and soft skills for its practice. Continuing education is a term normally used to designate the understanding that in the contemporary world, higher education is not enough to ensure the acquisition of skills to a professional life.

History

Training and capacity building has been a part of impact assessment since its inception. Teaching impact assessment in colleges and universities started soon after environmental impact assessment (EIA) was institutionalized in the United States with Congress passing NEPA (National Environmental Policy Law) in 1969. The first courses were being taught in at least two US Universities as early as in 1972 and 1973. Also in 1973, environmental impact assessment started being taught in Canada, South Africa and Italy, despite these countries not having EIA legislation.

In several public and private organizations of many countries, EIA was first introduced by external consultants by means of training courses or capacity-building programs aimed at professionals involved in project planning or at public officials in governmental environment or health agencies. During the 1980s the training seminar organized by the Centre for Environmental Planning and Management at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, partly sponsored by the World Health Organization, played an important role in disseminating EIA in both developed and developing countries (Bisset and Tomlinson, 1985).

Worldwide

As EIA requirements are worldwide spread, so do IA professionals and IA practice. Nowadays, environmental impact assessment, strategic environmental assessment and other forms of impact assessment are taught at many Universities in every continent and textbooks are available at major languages. In addition, there are regular or occasional training programs in several countries.

Education: teaching future professionals

In spite of the worldwide dissemination of impact assessment academic teaching, Stelmack et al. (2005) found professional training on EIA to be much better documented than academic education.

Gazzola (2008) reviewed 64 master programs related to environmental assessment in nine European countries and Stelmack et al. (2005) identified 40 universities in Canada offering environmental assessment courses.

Gazzola hypothesized that "the existence of common environmental assessment policy and legal frameworks [in the European Union] and of the methodological suggestions portrayed in the international environmental assessment literature do not ensure a common understanding of environmental assessment." She concluded that the way in which environmental assessment is taught in Europe is related to how it is practiced and understood in different countries, rather than its practice and understanding being dependent on environmental assessment (EA) education. She also found different approaches to teaching EA in Europe, broadly based on social sciences or on physical sciences. In Europe, most IA courses at master's level are hosted by engineering, environmental science and planning departments. Most of the Universities surveyed feature EA courses or modules as part of broader master programmes. "Master programmes with EA as the principal subject were found in four countries - Italy, Spain, France and the UK".

In the 2008 IAIA Conference held in Perth, Australia, eleven lecturers from ten countries shared their teaching experience. Prof. Larry Canter, formerly from the University of Oklahoma, United States, and one of the pioneers in formal environmental assessment teaching, synthesized many aspects relevant to impact assessment education:

topics covered ranged from fundamental process to advanced analysis of specific impact issues, whereas new emphasis related to cumulative effects assessment and adaptive management emerged;

teaching modes now involve e-learning and topical webinars

there are fundamental principles which transcend country or regional boundaries; both analysis and synthesis are needed for the preparation of impact assessment documents; communication of impact assessment information to a wide variety of audiences is a special professional challenge to practitioners

case studies along with the results of litigation can be useful tools for teaching about EIA practice.

As put in the report of the IAIA 08 education session: effective IA requires well qualified professionals. Educators have a key role in enhancing impact assessment effectiveness.

Training: impact assessment for professional development

Training has been associated with impact assessment since its beginnings. Introducing new legal requirements and new tools to practitioners is often carried out by training or continuous education programs, and IA is no exception.

Short courses on EIA were offered as early as in 1970 in the United States, following NEPA approval. Nowadays, the US Army Corps of Engineers, a Federal government agency deeply involved with environmental impact assessment is an example of a government agency which features a number of training programs.

When the European Directive on EIA came into force in July 1998, the European Commission estimated that at 2000 people, among then decision-makers, EIA project managers and technical specialists, needed to be initially trained (Clark, 1999).

Changing laws and regulations often call for training programs. For example, when the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act was introduced in 1992, the then newly constituted Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency (CEAA) prepared training packages in order to inform government officials and impact professionals by “training the trainers”. The CEAA website regularly features training opportunities.

A similar approach is used to disseminate impact assessment requirements in other jurisdictions or procedures adopted by financial agents such as the International Finance Corporation, whose environmental and social “Performance Standards” became a benchmark for the environmental and social review of many private investment projects worldwide.

Capacity building sessions have been featured in several IAIA Conferences. Several organizations promote capacity building in developing countries, including bilateral development agencies such as the Canadian International Development Agency and the German GTZ, and multilateral agencies such as the World Bank. Training contents may be generic and introductory or cover specific fields of impact assessment such as health impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment.

Learning and training opportunities are offered by a number of organizations. Besides offering short courses at every annual conference, IAIA has been running since 2004 its “Capacity Building in Biodiversity and Impact Assessment” program, aimed at promoting good practice in biodiversity and IA. In addition, IAIA maintains an EIA Training Course Database, an information sharing tool about training courses and programs from around the world.

Clark (1999) sees three types of professional training in EIA: short courses, on the job training and training the trainers, the latter aimed specifically at developing countries.

Conferences

IAIA Conferences regularly carry sessions on training and capacity building. The 2008 Conference held in Perth, Australia, featured a session on teaching and education. (See Abstracts of CS4.2 EIA/SEA Teaching and Education session held at IAIA 2008 Conference in Perth, Australia: http://www.iaia.org/iaia08perth/cs/session.aspx?id=CS4.2&ts=13)

School

A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the supervision of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools. The names for these schools vary by country (discussed in the Regional section below), but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education.

In addition to these core schools, students in a given country may also have access to and attend schools both before and after primary and secondary education. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to very young children (typically ages 3–5). University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school. A school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods.

There are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be for children with special needs when the government does not supply for them; religious, such as Christian schools, hawzas, yeshivas and others; or schools that have a higher standard of education or seek to foster other personal achievements. Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training and Military education and training.

In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a traditional school building.

History and development of schools

The concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece (see Academy), ancient India (see Gurukul) and ancient China (see History of education in China). The Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the primary education system began in 425 A.D. and "... military personnel usually had at least a primary education ...". The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that educated citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance due to a need for survival, the Empire emphasized efficiency in its war manuals, allowi. The Byzantine education system continued until the empire's collapse in 1453 AD.[1]

Islam was another culture to develop a schooling system in the modern sense of the word. Emphasis was put on knowledge and therefore a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge was developed in purpose built structures. At first, mosques combined both religious performance and learning activities, but by the ninth century, the Madrassa was introduced, a proper school built independently from the mosque. They were also the first to make the Madrassa system a public domain under the control of the Caliph. The Nizamiyya madrasa is considered by consensus of scholars to be the earliest surviving school, built towards 1066 CE by Emir Nizam Al-Mulk.

Under the Ottomans, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became the main centers of learning. The Ottoman system of Kulliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas, revolutionized the education system, making learning accessible to a wider public through its free meals, health care and sometimes free accommodation.

The nineteenth century historian, Scott holds that a remarkable correspondence exists between the procedure established by those institutions and the methods of the present day. They had their collegiate courses, their prizes for proficiency in scholarship, their oratorical and poetical contests, their commencements and their degrees. In the department of medicine, a severe and prolonged examination, conducted by the most eminent physicians of the capital, was exacted of all candidates desirous of practicing their profession, and such as were unable to stand the test were formally pronounced incompetent.[citation needed]

In Europe during the Middle Ages and much of the Early Modern period, the main purpose of schools (as opposed to universities) was to teach the Latin language. This led to the term grammar school which in the United States is used informally to refer to a primary school but in the United Kingdom means a school that selects entrants on their ability or aptitude. Following this, the school curriculum has gradually broadened to include literacy in the vernacular language as well as technical, artistic, scientific and practical subjects.

Many of the earlier public schools in the United States were one-room schools where a single teacher taught seven grades of boys and girls in the same classroom. Beginning in the 1920s, one-room schools were consolidated into multiple classroom facilities with transportation increasingly provided by kid hacks and school buses.

Regional terms

The use of the term school varies by country, as do the names of the various levels of education within the country.

United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations

In the United Kingdom, the term school refers primarily to pre-university institutions, and these can, for the most part, be divided into pre-schools or nursery schools, primary schools (sometimes further divided into infant school and junior school), and secondary schools. There are various types of secondary schools which include grammar schools, comprehensives, secondary moderns and city academies. In Scotland school performance is monitored by Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education. Ofsted reports on performance in England and Wales.

In the United Kingdom, most schools are publicly funded and known as state schools or maintained schools in which tuition is provided free. There are also private schools or independent schools that charge fees. Some of the most selective and expensive private schools are known as public schools, a usage that can be confusing to speakers of North American English. In North American usage, a public school is one that is publicly funded or run.

In much of the Commonwealth of Nations, including Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania, the term school refers primarily to pre-university institutions.

India

In ancient India, schools were in the form of Gurukuls. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. During the Mughal rule, Madrasahs were introduced in India to educate the children of Muslim parents. British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion.

Under the British rule in India, Christian missionaries from England, USA and other countries established missionary and boarding schools throughout the country. Later as these schools gained in popularity, more were started and some gained prestige. These schools marked the beginning of modern schooling in India and the syllabus and calendar they followed became the benchmark for schools in modern India. Today most of the schools follow the missionary school model in terms of tutoring, subject / syllabus, governance etc...with minor changes. Schools in India range from schools with large campuses with thousands of students and hefty fees to schools where children are taught under a tree with a small / no campus and are totally free of cost. There are various boards of schools in India, namely Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), Madrasa Boards of various states, Matriculation Boards of various states, State Boards of various boards, Anglo Indian Board, and so on. The typical syllabus today includes Language(s), Mathematics, Science - Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, History, General Knowledge, Information Technology / Computer Science etc... Extra curricular activities include physical education / sports and cultural activities like music, choreography, painting, theater / drama etc...

Europe

In much of continental Europe, the term school usually applies to primary education, with primary schools that last between four and nine years, depending on the country. It also applies to secondary education, with secondary schools often divided between Gymnasiums and vocational schools, which again depending on country and type of school educate students for between three and six years. In Germany students graduating from Grundschule are not allowed to directly progress into a vocational school, but are supposed to proceed to one of Germany's general education schools such as Gesamtschule, Hauptschule, Realschule or Gymnasium. When they leave that school, which usually happens at age 15-19 they are allowed to proceed to a vocational school. The term school is rarely used for tertiary education, except for some upper or high schools (German: Hochschule) which are used to describe colleges and universities.

North America and the United States

In North America, the term school can refer to any educational institution at any level, and covers all of the following: preschool (for toddlers), kindergarten, elementary school, middle school (also called intermediate school or junior high school, depending on specific age groups and geographic region), senior high school, college, university, and graduate school.

In the US, school performance through high school is monitored by each state's Department of Education. Charter schools are publicly funded elementary or secondary schools that have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools. The terms grammar school and grade school are sometimes used to refer to a primary school.

Universal terms

In many countries, Business Schools are colleges providing instruction in business, business administration, and management.

Boarding schools are schools where students live full-time amongst their peers in dormitories. Some boarding schools are separated by gender.

School ownership and operation

Many schools are owned or funded by states. Private schools are those which are operated independently from the government. Private schools usually rely on fees from families whose children attend the school for funding; however, sometimes such schools also receive government support (for example, through School vouchers). Many private schools are affiliated with a particular religion; these are known as parochial schools.

Components of most schools

Schools are organized spaces purposed for teaching and learning. The classrooms, where teachers teach and students learn, are of central importance, but typical schools have many other areas which may include:

Cafeteria (Commons), dining hall or canteen where students eat lunch and often breakfast and snacks.

Athletic field, playground, gym, and/or track place where students participating in sports or physical education practice

Auditorium or hall where student theatrical and musical productions can be staged and where all-school events such as assemblies are held

Office where the administrative work of the school is done

Library where students consult and check out books and magazines and often use computers

Specialized classrooms including laboratories for science education

Computer labs where computer-based work is done and the internet accessed

School security

The safety of staff and students is increasingly becoming an issue for school communities, an issue most schools are addressing through improved security. After mass shootings such as the Columbine High School massacre and the Virginia Tech incident, many school administrators in the United States have created plans to protect students and staff in the event of a school shooting. Some have also taken measures such as installing metal detectors or video surveillance. Others have even taken measures such as having the children swipe identification cards as they board the school bus. For some schools, these plans have included the use of door numbering to aid public safety response.

Other security concerns faced by schools include bomb threats, gangs, vandalism,[2] and bullying.[3]

School health services

Main article: School health services

Online schools/classes

Main article: Virtual school

Some schools offer remote access to their classes over the Internet. Online schools also can provide support to traditional schools, as in the case of the School Net Namibia. Some online classes provide experience in a class so that when you take it you have already been introduced to the subject and know what to expect, and even more classes provide High School/College credit allowing you to take the class at your own pace. Many online classes cost money to use but some are offered free.

Stress

As a profession, teaching has very high levels of Work-Related Stress (WRS)[4] which are listed as amongst the highest of any profession in some countries, such as the United Kingdom. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are being put into place.[5][6] Teacher education is increasingly recognizing the need for new entrants to the profession to be aware of and trained to overcome the challenges that they will face on the "mental health" front.

Stress sometimes affects students more severely than teachers, up to the point where the students are prescribed stress medication. This stress is claimed to be related to standardized testing, and the pressure on students to score above average. See Cram school.

Discipline

Main article: School discipline

Schools and their teachers have always been under pressure — for instance, pressure to cover the curriculum, to perform well in comparison to other schools, and to avoid the stigma of being "soft" or "spoiling" toward students. Forms of discipline, such as control over when students will and will not speak, and normalized behaviour, such as raising one's hand to speak, are imposed in the name of greater efficiency. Practitioners of critical pedagogy point out that such disciplinary measures have no positive effect on student learning; indeed, some would argue that disciplinary practices actually detract from learning since they undermine students' individual dignity and sense of self-worth, the latter occupying a more primary role in students' hierarchy of needs.

Etymology

The word school is from Greek σχολή scholē), originally meaning "leisure", and also "that in which leisure is employed